1023 days prior, the inaugural episode of a series delving into the progression of physics from Aristotle’s τὰ φυσικά to the emergence of the term physics was released. Now, in the sixty-fourth installment, we reach an important landmark. Initially, the series examined the roots of the term physics in Aristotle’s Greek and traced its evolution until it acquired its contemporary definition in 1715. This transformation was closely associated with Newton’s Principia, despite it holding the conventional title of Philosophiae Naturalis (Natural Philosophy) while incorporating modern mathematical concepts.
Aristotle’s perspective separated mathematics from natural philosophy, relegating it to lesser sciences such as astronomy. Conversely, Newton’s work was fundamentally mathematical, attracting critique, particularly from Huygens and Leibniz, for its deficiency in physical explanations. Yet, Newton’s mechanics gained traction, evolving into what we now label as Newtonian physics—though it does not precisely reflect Newton’s original contributions.
As time went on, European mathematicians honed Newton’s ideas, substituting his geometry with Leibniz’s calculus and adopting Lagrange’s mathematical symbols. In England, national pride upheld the classical techniques until Charles Babbage humorously critiqued it, advocating for more contemporary methodologies.
Newton’s framework assimilated celestial and terrestrial mechanics through groundbreaking inputs from Kepler, Galileo, and other figures. Although he modified his Principia in subsequent editions, challenges persisted, such as the comet theory, until further elucidated by scientists like Edmond Halley.
In the 18th century, enhancements and extensions were predominantly observed beyond Britain. Innovators such as the Bernoullis, Euler, Lagrange, Laplace, and others in France and Switzerland made remarkable strides. Significant advances included the kinetic theory of gases and celestial mechanics, culminating in Laplace’s resolution of the Moon’s orbit conundrum.
The notions of energy and work also began to emerge. Initial contributions from Descartes and Leibniz, confirmed by experiments conducted by s’Gravesande and du Châtelet, established the foundation for the understanding of energy as mv². Additional evolutions in the concept of work progressed into the 19th century, bridging the gap to modern definitions established by figures like Coriolis and Poncelet.
By the dawn of the 19th century, classical physics was firmly established on Newton’s principles. However, areas such as optics, magnetism, and electricity still sought comprehensive integration, which Faraday and Maxwell’s breakthroughs would subsequently accomplish. These advancements foreshadowed the eventual transition to Einstein’s relativistic physics, ushering in a new era beyond Newton’s vision.